What is Internet Bandwidth?

Internet bandwidth can be thought of as an electronic byway that connects the Internet to your computer. Increasing bandwidth (widening the lane) allows more traffic to flow, increasing speed. Having a little or a lot of Internet bandwidth available makes the difference between watching a graphic-intensive Web page load in phases over a period of several minutes, or having it pop into your window like a flash of lightening. The more bandwidth your connection has, the faster it will load and the more time you will save.

Internet bandwidth test meters are available online to test your connection speed. The hosting site will upload blocks of data recording the amount of time it takes to complete the transfers. Speed is a measurement of how much data can be transferred from the Internet to your computer per second. A graph will reveal the results, allowing you to see if your connection is performing as expected. Close unnecessary background processes and programs before you start, and take several bandwidth tests from several sites to establish an average, true speed.
Unfortunately we cannot “unthrottle” bandwidth at will. Internet service providers (ISPs) allot computer connections so much bandwidth based on the price of the package purchased. To get more speed, you have to upgrade to a package with a greater allowance of bandwidth. In the case of dial-up, the slowest type of Internet service, the technology itself limits the connection speed to less than 56 kilobits per second (kbps). As a point of reference, one Megabyte is 8,192 kilobits so transferring one Megabyte of data over dial-up can take close to three minutes. This limitation eventually pushes most customers towards faster technologies.
There are several different types of high-speed Internet one can get depending on local availability. Options include Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) offered over conventional copper telephone wires, cable Internet via the neighborhood cable TV provider, and fiber optic services available over newer fiber optic wires that are replacing conventional copper lines in many regions. If you live in a rural area, dial-up or satellite Internet might be your only choices.
DSL serves up the most affordable Internet packages, several times faster than dial-up. DSL entry-packages can start as low as $13 - $15 US Dollars (USD) monthly for speeds up to 768 kilobits per second (kbps). A connection of this sort normally delivers one Megabyte of data in 12-15 seconds, a big improvement over dial-up’s three minutes. DSL also offers much faster packages that compete with cable.
Entry-level cable packages typically offer a heftier allotment of Internet bandwidth, perhaps up to 3000 kbps (advertised as three megabits per second), delivering a Megabyte in about three seconds. Subscription prices vary, generally starting at $30 - $40 USD monthly. Packages increase in speed and price from there, though many cable providers offer only a single package. The faster the package, the higher the price tends to be within the normal range of the cable market.
Fiber optic Internet services start as high as 10 or 20 mbps, with top-tier packages offering 50 mbps of Internet bandwidth. That’s a transfer rate (speed) of roughly a Megabyte per second, two Megabytes per second, and five Megabytes per second, respectively. The fastest possible Internet packages currently offered cost an excess of $100 USD monthly.
Cable and fiber optic services will often bundle TV and digital phone with Internet access for one monthly bill. Bundles are optional and can be customized to exclude a service that isn't required. For those who would like DSL but do not have landline service, some telephone companies now offer “naked DSL” or DSL without telephone service for customers who use their cell phones instead of landlines.

What Are the Different Types of Internet Advertising?

For some companies and individual professionals, the Internet is used for the bulk or all of their advertising. In many cases, people choose Internet advertising because there are opportunities to reach a large number of viewers, in a variety of ways, for free or for very reasonable rates. Internet advertising options include pay-per-click advertising and business directory listings.
Many print advertising options require people to pay for a certain amount of space with no guarantee that anyone will pay attention. When placing an advertisement in a newspaper or on a billboard, for example, a company generally pays or agrees to pay a specified amount before their message is displayed. Pay-per-click Internet advertising does not usually work this way.

Pay-per-click advertising offers advertisers more guarantee that people are paying attention to their messages. With this option, advertisers are typically only charged when a person clicks on their advertisements. Otherwise, the advertisements can rest free on any number of web pages.
There are several types of pay-per-click advertisement styles. There are links that can be placed in the body of an article. There are text boxes that can be placed along the sides, tops and bottoms of web pages. There are also embedded links, which tend to eliminate the distractions from the content that some other options cause.
With an embedded link, a keyword is associated with an advertisement. For example, in a travel article, the word "hotel" may appear. That word may be highlighted, denoting a link. When clicked, it may show and advertisement for a particular hotel. Only at that time is the advertiser charged.
Some Internet advertising follows the traditional method where advertisers pay for exposing their messages. These generally work like newspapers and billboards. An advertiser is given so much space for a certain amount of money, which is usually paid monthly or annually. Some web pages may have rules that require advertisers to conform to certain standards. Others may accept any type of advertising as long as the space has been paid for.
Social networking sites offer a unique form of Internet advertising. Social networks sometimes allow people to build pages similar to miniature websites. On these pages, individual professionals or companies can promote and display their work and products. They can also create videos that serve as commercials. Other social networking sites can be used for Internet advertising because people can make announcements with links that draw viewers to another site that pertains to work or products.

What are Some Different Types of Internet Crimes?

Although the Internet has made life easier in many ways, it’s smart to be concerned about Internet crimes. Computer crime is becoming a growing problem for law enforcement officials around the world. Unfortunately, since Internet crimes typically involve people from many different geographic areas, catching and punishing the guilty parties is a difficult task.

One of the most common types of Internet crime is identity theft. This crime involves unscrupulous individuals who attempt to steal your personal information for financial gain. They may empty your bank account, run up unauthorized credit card charges, or open new accounts in your name and never pay the bills that result. Identity theft Internet crimes are often accomplished through phishing or spoofing, the practice of creating fake web sites or e-mail messages that trick the victim into divulging personal information. Certain computer viruses may also be used to harvest personal information for identity theft crimes.
Employment or business opportunity Internet scams that pray on the desires of financially desperate individuals are becoming increasingly popular as well. These Internet crimes may involve asking the victim to illegally reship merchandise to overseas locations, make fraudulent wire transfers, or advertise non-existent merchandise for sale on behalf of a third party. Generally, if you see an advertisement promising large monetary rewards for a minimal amount of effort, it’s smart to be cautious. It is possible to make money online, but legitimate business opportunities require a substantial investment of your time and skill.
Cyberstalking is a type of Internet crime that is of particular concern for teenagers and young adults. Social networking websites such as MySpace make it very easy for criminals to learn private details about a victim’s hobbies, interests, friends, family, and daily schedule. Cyberstalking Internet crimes may also lead to sexual assault if the perpetrator is able to convince the victim to appear for a personal meeting.
To prevent yourself from becoming victim of Internet crimes, it’s important to remain alert when using your computer. Never give out personal information such as your full name, birth date, address, or Social Security number unless you understand what the information will be used for. In addition, remember that people you meet online may not always be representing themselves truthfully. Be suspicious of claims that seem exaggerated or hard to verify.

What Is Wireless Internet Access?

Wireless Internet access, sometimes referred to as a "hot spot," is a local area network (LAN) run by radio waves rather than wires. Wireless Internet access is broadcast from a central hub, which is a hard-wired device that actually brings in the Internet connection. The hub, located at the main computer system or server, broadcasts Internet connectivity to clients, which is basically anyone within receiving range who is equipped with a wireless LAN card. In the home, a desktop system setup for wireless Internet access will broadcast connectivity throughout the immediate area. Any family member with a laptop or desktop in another room can connect wirelessly to the Internet to share the main connection. Neighbors may also be able to access this wireless connection, which is why most wireless LANs are configured with password security. In this case, any machine that wishes to get wireless Internet access must first complete a "handshake" with the LAN, in which the password is requested. If the proper password is not supplied, access is denied. Security protocols for wireless Internet access have improved with Wi Fi Protected Access (WPA) and Wi Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2) options.
While wireless Internet access is very convenient in the home, it can be even more so in the workplace. A wired network can not only be very time consuming to install throughout a building, it is also very expensive. Ethernet cables used to connect client machines might need to be routed through walls, ceilings, and floors. In the past, this disadvantage was sometimes overlooked due to the advantages of greater security and faster data transfer speeds through Ethernet cables.
These advantages have been largely mitigated, however. Wireless LANs can be installed in virtually minutes by nearly anyone, are extremely inexpensive, and can have data transfer rates that rival hard-wired Ethernet LANs. Furthermore, WPA2 encrypts all traffic on the LAN, addressing the problem of eavesdropping.
One of the most popular applications for wireless Internet access is the public hot spot. Internet cafes are one example of places where one can sit with a laptop and sip coffee while cruising the Internet, checking email, or doing research. Cell phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs) equipped with Web browsers can also utilize wireless Internet access points through public hot spots.
Some localities provide free wireless Internet access for residents and visitors. Since wireless LANs use radio waves that distort over long distances, the radius of the signal is limited. The further from the hub, the weaker the signal. Therefore cities that provide access will cover a specific area within the city where people can park to gain access.

What is the Internet?

The Internet is a global network of computers that communicate via TCP/IP protocol. While the uncapitalized term "internet" refers to bridged networks in general, the capitalized term "Internet" refers to the global network of networks that is publicly accessible and administratively unmoderated. The Internet is the basis for the World Wide Web, Email, P2P applications, VOIP, and hundreds of other uses. Although the basic data being transmitted in each of these cases may be virtually identical, each case requires special treatment of the data in regard to data integrity, speed, redundancy, and error correction. The success of the Internet is therefore attributed to its flexibility in providing a platform for the differing data protocols and their individual needs.

The roots of today's Internet date back to October 1969, when the US Defence Department's ARPAnet first came online. While this was not the first long-range computer network, it was the first to use packet-switching methods to ensure data integrity, optimized bandwidth utilization, and reliability. This was in stark contrast to the more common circuit-switching methods that demanded a fixed, dedicated path between two communicating computers. However, the TCP/IP protocol was not implemented until January 1983, when the United States' National Science Foundation established their university network. With the introduction of domain names in 1985 and Tim Berners-Lee's invention of the World Wide Web in 1991, the Internet gained public interest. The World Wide Web made possible the publication of documents that could be accessed (and inter-linked) in a simple manner with no need for opening an account on each machine accessed.Today, the most popular uses of the Internet are browsing the World Wide Web and Email communication. Browsing the Web is done via a web browser such as Firefox or Internet Explorer. Email is commonly accessed in one of four ways: POP3, IMAP, hosted exchange provider, or web-based. POP3 and IMAP both require dedicated Email clients, such as Thunderbird or Outlook. Exchange is commonly accessed via Microsoft Outlook, additionlly there are third party implementations of the application. Web-based Email is accessed via the World Wide Web, and thus requires nothing more than a web browser. In order for one to access the Internet, he must connect via a service (or access) provider, called an ISP. While most of the developed world can access the Internet via high-speed broadband connections, many places rely upon comparatively slow dial-up solutions. Also, may new cellular phones come equipped with a web browser and modem interface, and many cellular carriers now provide Internet access.

Explanation of the Internet

This resource is designed specifically for Unit 6 of the Edexcel BTEC qualification, 'Business Online'.

Aim

The aim of this section is to generate an understanding of how the Internet works and the difference between the Internet and the Web.

What is the Internet?

Very simply, the Internet is worldwide collection of computers all connected together to form a huge network. These computers communicate with each other through a set of common software standards known as protocols. These protocols allow the sending and receiving of emails; viewing of Web pages; the transfer of files between one computer and another; instant messaging with other users, etc.

In order for these protocols to work there must be a way of identifying each machine connected to the Internet. Each machine connected to the Internet has an address known as an Internet

In order for these protocols to work there must be a way of identifying each machine connected to the Internet. Each machine connected to the Internet has an address known as an Internet Protocol address (IP address). The IP address takes the form of a series of four numbers separated by dots, for example: 123.45.67.890

With this in mind, what happens when you type a Web page address into your Web browser?

1. A user types in the address http://www.bized.co.uk into a Web browser (for example: Microsoft Internet Explorer or Mozilla).
2. The Web browser sends this information to a program called a name server. Usually this program is running on a computer operated by the people who provide you with an Internet connection (your Internet Service Provider or ISP). Part of the sign up process with an ISP involves 'telling' your computer the location of the name server - usually the setup software from the ISP does this for you so you are rarely involved with the setup.
3. On receiving the Web address the name server may communicate with other name servers running on computers all over the world. The name servers associate the Web address with an IP address.
4. This IP address is then returned to the Web browser.
5. On receiving the IP address the Web browser now knows the precise address of the computer it needs to connect to in order to receive the appropriate Web page.

In the above description the Web address is an example of a hostname. Name servers turn/resolve these hostnames into IP addresses refering to computers on the Internet. The network of programs and information sources that allow the resolution of hostnames is known as the Domain Name System (DNS). Although the example referred to a Web address the process is the same for establishing where to deliver email or setting up file transfers between different computers.

Portable Computers

Palm tops, Sub notebooks and the likes. The basic difference among these portable devices is that they differ in size, power consumption, screen size and not to mention the least the memory or storage space.

Based on these factors, portable computer systems are differentiated as:-  

Laptops or Notebook Computers – Laptops are PCs which are the most efficient of all portable computers. They have all the basic features of a

• desktop system. But the difference lies in the fact that all the hardware parts are very light and integrated. But in spite of their efficiency they have not overtaken the market entirely because their internal parts cannot be easily updated.
• Sub Notebook Computers – These are almost the same as Notebook computers but they are a little smaller in size and also lighter than the notebook computers.
• Palm Tops – These are portable PCs which are of the size of a your palms. Unlike the laptop computers, they have a very small memory which can at the most be used for storing phone numbers, addresses, pictures and such other small data .They are incapable of running CD and floppy.
  The factors that demand attention while buying Portable computers are:

Quantum Computers

Quantum Computers are still in the state of infancy as compared to the Digital computers. The computers that we use today are improved versions of the original Digital systems that have been clubbed together with Hybrid Computers. While digital systems work on the principle of Binary mathematics and processes data through Boolean logic gates, the Quantum Systems are those that process data following the Quantum theory of physics.

Quantum computers are the next generation computers. Though the basic quantum computer model was built some thirty years ago, the practical machine is yet to see the light of the day. The credit of developing the idea of quantum computers goes entirely to a group of physicists and computer scientists, namely- Paul. A. Benioff, David Deutsch, Charles H. Bennett, and Richard P. Feynman.Quantum computers have been summarized as follows:

• The fundamental unit of data processing is known as Qubit or Quantum Bit.
• Qubit is a concept that originates from Quantum mechanics.
• Qubit is quaternary by nature.
• The “0” and “1” logic figures might as well be superimposed in quantum computing. Based on the operational principle, computers that have so long served us can be divided into three basic types.
  
  1. Analog Computers: The analog computer is almost an extinct type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer in respect that it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously, very much unlike the digital computers, which could not operate the more complex operations. It is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation.
  
  2. Digital Computers: These are computing machines which work on the principle of binary mathematics. Digital computers when clubbed with Analog computers produce Hybrid computers. The basic principle of binary mathematics, the principle on which the digital computer works is that, it represents all mathematical numbers with the help of the digits “0” and “1”.

Server

Server or Server Application refers to both the server computer that runs the Interactive Programs and the Batch Programs, but more correctly to the Program itself that serves to provides responses to several users via many computers. Think of all the facilities you can get while your computer is connected to the Internet. To say the least, you can exchange data, send e-mails, download application forms of colleges and other such institutions, carry out on-line trading and what not?

How do you think this mass interaction is possible? It is the Server Computer that runs the server program. This serves to simultaneously interconnect the computers you use at home, in offices and the likes.

Based on the work that the server performs, servers can be distinguished as:-

• Web Server – The web server utilizes the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server program. In other words, it accepts and delivers HTTP programs from the network computer system in order to accept and respond to client requests and instructions. An error message is forwarded by the web server in order o communicate any possible problem via the Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML).
• FTP Server – This is a sever that allows you to share and transfer files with other interconnected computers that form a network under the FTP server.
• Game Server – Playing games on-line is a phenomenon that has gained popularity over the years. The game server with its huge bandwidth makes it possible for the client computer to exchange huge amount of data with the server computer.
• Application Server – Most of you who are or have been students must have had the pleasant experience of downloading forms from the Internet instead of wasting time queuing up to buy the forms. The server that allows your computer to receive the concerned application forms is known as the Application server.
• Print Server – It allows you to exchange data which can be printed from a desired computer system connected to the print server.
• Database Server – Provides database services to networking computer systems.
• Client Server – Being run on interactive programs, provides services to clients using the computers connected to the client server computer.
• Fax Server – This server, as the name suggests, allows you to send and receive faxes to computers, interconnected via the fax server.

Tablet PC

What is a Tablet PC? What is the basic difference between a tablet PC and a Laptop? They literally look somewhat similar. But tablet PC is far more convenient to use than the Notebook computers. They are both portable computers, but they differ with respect to the accessories, the software used and the screen. Though both laptops and tablet PC s are mobile computer systems, the later one gives you the opportunity of writing directly on the screen rather than typing out the same on the keyboard. Naturally when it comes to explaining directly from the PC in colleges or business organizations, using a pen to explain is always more convenient.

But you must be wondering how is it possible for the computer to understand handwriting.

For your tablet PC to decipher the handwriting, special softwares are loaded. For your convenience, the significant features of tablet PC has been listed below:

• The tablet PC has handwriting recognizing softwares installed in them as the recognizer pack in Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005.
• Several Shorthand recognizing tools as Inscribe, Tap, Message Ease, Alpha Tap, act like virtual keyboards. You can easily learn up these short hand languages within a matter of weeks before using these accessories.
• Nowadays active digitizers are fitted behind the tablet PC screen to to avail maximum visibility. The protection provided by the active digitizers allow you to rest your hand without misguiding the computer to recognize it as a command. Hence, writing becomes easy even when the screen is placed in a horizontal position.
• Types of tablet PC
  
  1. Slates
  2. Convertibles
  3. Thin-client slates
  4. Hybrid tablet PCs.
  
  Tablet PCs have come a long way since it was first designed by Allen Kay of Xerox PARC in 1960. It is significant to note that a Tablet PC is distinct from tablet PC in terms that Tablet PC is exclusively a product of Microsoft.

Minicomputers

Minicomputers, what exactly are they? If supercomputers and mainframes are considered to be the best in terms of mathematical operations then minicomputer systems succeed them.

Previously, minicomputers were considered to be superior to personal systems. But these days, advancement in technology has made minicomputers almost obsolete because the PCs today are highly advanced.

The Minicomputers were first built in in 1960s and they immediately became a huge success as 40,000 of the minicomputer systems were immediately sold of making the computers hugely available to the general public. With such a successful market possibility many companies stepped in to venture in the minicomputer market. The most successful among these two hundred companies was DEC that launched the minicomputer models PDP-11 and VAX 11/780.

Some significant aspects and historical facts about the mini computer system has been summarized as follows:

• They are much smaller in size than the mainframe computer systems. As such they do not occupy an entire room but usually occupy space similar in size to that of a standard refrigerator.
• They are much less expensive than the mainframes.
• Their invention was possible because of the invention of core memory technologies and transistors.
• Minicomputers can can give parallel access to up to 100 users. Hence they were used in places such as business organizations for maintaining billings and finances.
• Some of the very first companies to manufacture the minicomputer systems were Hewlett Packard, DEC and Data General.

A few models of minicomputers which have been a marked success over the years are:

• DEC VAX series and PDP series
• Hewlett Packard HP3000 series
• SDS,SDS-92
• Prime Computers, Prime 50 Series
• Norsk Data, Nord-1, Nord-10, Nord-100
• IBM Midrange Computers
• Control Data Corporation's CDC 160A, CDC-1700
• Data General Nova
• Honeywell-Bull Level 6/DPS Level6/DPS 6000 series

Minicomputers have eventually evolved in to microcomputers. With the launch of microcomputers, the public have had a greater access to the advantage of incorporating computers in the daily stride of their lives.

Supercomputers

Supercomputers are one of the many types of modern computing machines which are capable of giving very speedy calculations.

It is because of their high speed processing ability that Supercomputer systems are used in such works as animation graphics, weather forecasting, nuclear research work, petroleum research works, crypt analysis, molecular modeling and the likes. You must be wondering then what is the difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe computer system? While Mainframe machines are primarily used for a number of purposes, supercomputers are so designed to serve a singular purpose. A brief time line of the development of supercomputers has been given as follows:

• 1960s: Seymour Cray of Control Data Corporation (CDC) launches the Supercomputer systems.
• 1970s: Cray Research is founded by Seymour Cray after he leaves Control Data Corporation (CDC). Most supercomputers were meant for running vector processor.
• 1985-1990: Cray's model of supercomputer takes over the market.
• Today, supercomputers are designed by such companies as HP, IBM and of course, Cray Inc. Supercomputer systems are now becoming almost the same as laptop computers and desktop systems.

Before the 1970s, supercomputers were mostly run on scalar process principle. But in order to improve its efficiency a number of new technologies were developed such as:

1. Liquid Cooling
2. Striped Disks (RAID)
3. Parallel File systems
4. Non-uniform memory access (NUMA)
5. Vector Processing

When the hardwares of the supercomputers are prepared to serve a special mathematical operation, they are called Special Supercomputers. Currently there are many such types of supercomputers as the GRAPE for molecular dynamics and astrophysics, Deep Crack for cracking DES cipher, Deep Blue for playing chess, etc.

Laptops

Laptops or Notebook computers are a type of personal computers which are portable devices. The special feature of laptop computers is that it is far lighter than a Desktop PC. Being a wireless system, you can use it even when there is a power cut or you are away from home where electricity is not available.

Laptops or Notebook Computers are different from a desktop computer not only in terms of size and portability but the following factors count for the basic difference:

• In laptops, the mouse, keyboard and sound box is integrated with the main system itself.
• A notebook computer is not powered by electricity but by a battery.
• Nowadays networking features like Intel Centrino mobile Technology is installed within the laptop computers itself.
• In most laptops with the exception of a few like Alienware, the internal parts cannot be updated once you have bought the Laptop.
• And to say the least it is far more fragile than a Desktop PC.

While buying a Laptop computer you need to consider the quality of the portable computer. What accounts for the portability, are the following factors. So make sure to check out that the basic components of the system, that is to say, the Processor, Memory, Mass Storage and Removal components and the peripheral accessories should be designed in such a way that it is

• as light and small as possible;
• should be powered by a proper battery which must generate minimum heat;
• should be accessible by a floppy or a CD.

With the market pouring over with companies such as Compaq, Acer, Toshiba, Zenith, Sahara, HCL, Lenovo, Del Inspiration, ASUS, HP computers, Apple Computers, Alienware and many more, you can choose laptops ranging in price anywhere between 29000 ICR to anywhere beyond 1,00,000.

Digital Computers

Digital Computers are that kind of computing machines which work on the principle of binary mathematics. Digital computing machines when clubbed with Analog computers produce Hybrid computers. The digital systems work on the principle of binary mathematics. In binary mathematics all calculations are represented through “0” and “1”.

You have often heard about the word “Byte”, “Mega Byte”, “Kilo Byte”. But what is a Byte? A single Byte is a group of 8 numbers or bits represented through a code series comprising of “0” and “1” .The combination of the digital signal can solve a number of mathematical operations. It is interesting to note that the fundamentals of mathematics applied are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. But the chief problem is that though it can solve mathematical problems at a tremendous speed, it cannot perform bulk operations simultaneously. For this purpose, digital systems by themselves cannot give very precise results. Hence, for greater efficiency, the Digital systems do not find much application.

Data Processing In Digital Computers Digital computers function with the help of logic circuits. A reliable oscillator helps in the proper synchronization of various logic circuits that are responsible for processing data in the digital computers. In better quality computers, the oscillation rate might even be a billion cycles per second. Operating at such high speed, it can process more than billions of logic and arithmetic problems.

A digital computer with the help of binary system cannot only perform mathematical problems but also combine the bytes to produce desired graphics, sounds, images and other such commands.

Desktop Computers

Desktop computers are the most widely used Personal Computers which still claim a fair share of 46% of the total world market. In spite of the fact that PCs are now dwarfed to Laptops and Palmtops, Desktop machines rule most homes and business institutions because of their durability and cheapness.

Desktop Personal Computersare found almost every where – almost in all middle class Indian homes, cyber cafes, shopping malls, business institutions, offices, etc.

The History of Desktop computers being produced at amass scale dates back to around the late 70s of the 20th century. When you come across a typical desktop computer, note that the PC that includes the following parts is visible to you:

• A Visual Display Unit (VDU)
• A Keyboard
• A Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• A Mouse

There can be in addition to these a pair of Sound box, Web Cam, Joystick, etc.

Besides the mechanical components of a Desktop system, or the hardware system of the desktop computer comprises:

• Mother Board (System Board) – The mother board, a board concerning printed circuit, is the most important component of the Desktop computer as it contains and connects all the important parts of the hardware. It basically consists of the keyboard connector, RAM, AGP PCI and ISA slots, CPU, battery, expansion board and L2 Cache.
• Processor – This can be called the chief brain of the computer.
• Hard Disk drive – It is that part of the memory which the regular user can utilize for the purpose of working and storing data.

• Optical Disc Drive – This is the component for playing CD s and DVD s.
• Floppy Disc drive – The part that helps in the running of a floppy.
• Random Access Memory – The permanent memory that cannot be erased by the user
• Modem – This is the component used to connect to BBS, dial up network and of course the Internet.
• Computer Power Supply Unit – This is the unit that is responsible for supplying the system with electrical power.
• Various cards and Coolers.

Today Desktop machines are manufactured by a wide range of companies, though integrated Desktops Personal Computers are also popular. HP computer, Toshiba , HCL, ACER to name a few a few of them.

Analog Computers

Analog Computers and Digital computers are the two kinds of computers, the combination of which is responsible for the invention of the modern Hybrid computers. The analog systems carry out arithmetic and logical operations by manipulating and processing data which you input such as the weight, temperature, voltage, power density, etc. But unlike the digital computer that changes all inputs to binary digits of “1” and “0”, the analog computer does not change inputted data to any such sign language.The analog computer has become obsolete type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer as it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously. The digital computers, however could not operate the more complex operations. The Analog System is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation.

Mathematical Principles Applied For The Data Processing In Analog Computers:

• Logarithm
• Summation
• Exponentiation
• Calculus
• Multiplication and Division
• Inversion

The analog computer which is a complex machine is an integration of various mechanical parts which has pipes, valves, levers, gears and several key parts which can be named as follows:-

• Fixed function generators
• Operational amplifiers
• Potentiometers
• Integrators

Advantages and Disadvantages of Analog Computers

The advantage of an analog computer is that it can simultaneously find solutions to several mathematical problems and that too while being precise unlike the digital computer. But it is not free of drawbacks. Unlike the digital computer it lacks speed of calculation. There are other functional problems which mar the efficiency of analog systems. Of these, the problems of non-linearities, temperature co-efficient, parasitic effects and noise floor are the main problems so to say.

Types of Computers

The types of computers range from the Hybrid to the Analog types. The computers you come across in the daily course of your day range from laptops, palmtops and towers, to desktop computers, to name a few. But the very word “computers” reminds one of the desktop computers used in offices or homes. Different categories of computes have been devised in keeping with our varied needs.

The Types Of Computers: Analog and Hybrid (classification based on operational principle)

• Analog Computers: The analog computer is almost an extinct type of computer these days. It is different from a digital computer in respect that it can perform numerous mathematical operations simultaneously. It is also unique in terms of operation as it utilizes continuous variables for the purpose of mathematical computation. It utilizes mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical energy or operation.
• Hybrid computers: These types of computers are, as the name suggests, a combination of both Analog and Digital computers. The Digital computers which work on the principle of binary digit system of “0” and “1” can give very precise results. But the problem is that they are too slow and incapable of large scale mathematical operation. In the hybrid types of computers the Digital counterparts convert the analog signals to perform Robotics and Process control. 
• Apart from this, computers are also categorized on the basis of physical structures and the purpose of their use. Based on Capacity, speed and reliability they can be divided into three categories of computers.1. The Mainframe Computer – These are computers used by large organizations like meteorological surveys and statistical institutes for performing bulk mathematical computations. They are core computers which are used for desktop functions of over one hundred people simultaneously.
  
  2. The Microcomputer – These are the most frequently used computers better known by the name of “Personal computers”. This is the type of computer meant for public use. Other than Desktop Computer the choice ranges as follows:
• Personal Digital Computer
• Tablet PC
• Towers
• Work Stations
• Laptops
• Hand Held Computer

3. The Mini computer – Mini computers like the mainframe computers are used by business organization. The difference being that it can support the simultaneous working of up to 100 users and is usually maintained in business organizations for the maintenance of accounts and finances.

Yet another category of computer is the Super Computers. It is somewhat similar to mainframe computers and is used in economic forecasts and engineering designs. Today life without computers is inconceivable. Usage of different types of computers has made life both smooth and fast paced

Hard Drive Magnets

Hard Drive Magnets - Strong and Fun

Hard drive magnets can be heaps of fun. I take them out of my old hard drives and distribute them to my brothers. They can be useful for holding things together and are fun to fiddle with. They can be used to fix the book that was open on its spine and are great for competitions in seeing who can pull the magnets apart (this is extremely hard). The magnets are powerful enough to go through someone's hand and maybe even two hands.

How to get the magnets out of the hard drive

The first step in getting some hard drive magnets is finding a hard drive that you no longer need or is broken in some way. Remember once you open it, the hard drive will no longer be usable. Firstly find all the screws and take them out. Some hard drives will have different screws meaning that you may have to drill through the screw or lever it using a flat screw Once you take all the screws out you will need to lever up the metal lid till it comes off. After this you will need to locate the actuator where the magnets are located.

The actuator motor may have some screws holding it together. Undo these and then you should be able to lift the top half off. On the metal there may be a magnet. If not, don't worry there should will be one underneath the actuator arm. 

To get the second magnet out you will probably need to crack the end of the actuator arm and unscrew any last screws holding the magnet in. After this you should have both magnets out of the hard drive. If you
prefer to have the magnet by itself you can break the magnet from the metal. However this makes the magnet a lot more fragile
so I would recommend leaving it on the metal.

How to Reset the BIOS Password?

So how do you reset the BIOS password? This page will show you how. In the BIOS setup is where your BIOS password would of been created. You have either forgotton the password, or someone gave you the computer and now you can't open your BIOS to edit some options.

So what do you do?

Reset the BIOS Password! Resetting the BIOS password is actually easier then it sounds. Basically you have two options. You can take out the CMOS battery (which remembers the BIOS information) or in more modern machines you can move a little jumper on the motherboard which is mostly called Clear CMOS, or reset BIOS to defaults or something.

1. Take the CMOS Battery Out

Firstly we will look at the CMOS battery way, which is the way all the oldies had to do it. First, shut down your computer and remove the power cable. Then open up the computer and then locate the CMOS battery on your motherboard.

Next you will need to press in the little metal side in and flick the battery out. Leave the battery out for 20 - 30 minutes. Then re-insert your battery, plug in the power cable, and turn your computer on.

Press the key to enter your BIOS setup and then proceed to setup your BIOS accordingly.

Now for the second option in resetting the BIOS password. This option is a lot quicker then the first.

2. Use the Clear CMOS Jumper

First you will need to shut down your computer, take out the power cable and open up your pc. Then you need to look on your motherboard, for a few pins with a jumper on them. Don't just take out random jumpers make sure you find the right one.

Remember not every motherboard will have the pins. Hopefully you can find some clear CMOS pins that look something like the picture below. This picture below is a really zoomed in picture of the one above (you can see the CMOS battery on the right there).

Can you see the small text on the motherboard explaining the clear CMOS jumper. It says: 1-2 Normal, 2-3 CLEAR CMOS. That means if you leave the jumper on pins 1-2 then the BIOS information will still be remembered. But if you change the pin to 2-3 then all the BIOS information is cleared and forgotten.

So if you want to reset the BIOS password just place the jumper on pins 2-3 for about 1 minute then place it back on pins 1-2 and the process of resetting your bios is complete.

So now you know how to reset the BIOS password.

Boot Process

The boot process is something that happens every time you turn your computer on. You don't really see it, because it happens so fast. You press the power button come back a few minutes later and Windows XP, or Windows Vista, or whatever Operating System you use is all loaded.

However, what really happens when you press the power button and turn your computer on? This process is called the boot process and this article will help you understand the process of turning on your computer. The following is a list of what typically happens in a pc, but it will differ depending on your bios and manufacturer.

1. The first step your computer does when you press the power button, is to turn the Computer Power Supply on. Once a 'Power Good' signal is sent to the motherboard, the CPU then (understanding that the power supply is stable) looks for the ROM bios.
2. The CPU looks to the ROM bios for the first instruction, and the first instruction is to run the POST (Power-On-Self-Test).
3. The POST first checks the bios and then tests the CMOS RAM. If there is no problems with this then POST continues to check the CPU, hardware devices such as the Video Card, the secondary storage devices such as the Hard Drive, Floppy Drives, Zip Drive or CD/DVD Drives.
4. If there are any errors found then an error message is displayed on screen or a number of beeps are heard. These beeps are known as POST beep codes. The reason the computer sometimes uses beep codes instead of displaying an error message is because the video card has not yet been initiated or there may be an error with the card.
5. Next the bios finds the video card and runs the video card's bios. This usually is the first thing that modern machines display on the screen. After that the computer looks at the other devices and runs their bios' if they have one.
6. The bios then displays the system configuration.
7. During the display more tests are conducted including the test that shows your computer testing the memory. If there are any problems found from now on they will be displayed in a text message on the screen.
8. After that the bios searches for something that it can boot from. This can be set in the CMOS under boot sequence. It can be set to the A: Drive (Floppy) C: (Hard Drive, Primary Partition) D: (CD/DVD Drive) or others such as the USB drive or network card (depending on the bios).
9. Once the target boot device has been selected the bios will search for the Master Boot Record (MBR). If it is searching for a hard drive it looks at cylinder 0, head 0, sector 1.
10. Once a valid volume boot sector is found the bios has done its job and hands over control to the Operating System that completes the booting process. It will also conduct a few hardware tests.
11. If no valid boot record is found the computer will display an error such as the following:
    Non-System Disk or disk error
    Replace and press any key when ready
    
12. If a valid boot record is found but it cannot read the Master Boot Record then the computer will display a message such as: Disk boot failure, insert system disk and press enter
    

Computer Basics

List of Computer Basics

On this page, I will briefly describe all the computer basics. I will try to cover all the different pieces of computer hardware and shortly describe what they are and what they do. Computers are complex machines but when they are split up into separate components they are much easier to understand. This page seeks to provide information on computer basics and if you wish to learn more about compute hardware click on the links provided.

Desktop Computer Cases

Desktop computer cases are the home to all the computer components. Everything including the motherboard, the hard drive, the cd drive, the floppy drive and the power supply go inside a computer case. Computer cases can be different colors and in recent years some have become fancy. Extras, such as front USB have become popular as well.

Motherboards

Computer Motherboards are essential to a computer. All the computer components somehow connect to the motherboard. The Power Supply powers up the motherboard and the CPU is laid inside the motherboard. The memory is also put into the motherboard. Hard Drives, Floppy Drives and CD/DVD players all connect to the motherboard using either the IDE Ribbon cable or the later SATA cables. Thus a motherboard is very important for it connectsall the computer hardware components together.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

When explaining the CPU (Central Processing unit) to my inquisitive younger brothers I tell them that the CPU is the 'brain' of a computer. It is arguably the most important piece of hardware and when looking to buy or build your own computer make sure you choose the correct CPU for your needs. CPU clock speed is measured in hertz. In previous years it was megahertz (one million cycles per second) and now they are mainly measured in
gigahertz (one billion cycles per second). CPUs are most commonly manufactured by Intel and AMD.

Computer Memory(CPU)

RAM (Random Access Memory) or Computer Memory is another very important component to a computer. Computer Memory is a volatile storage device meaning that when the computer is switched off everything stored on this temporary storage device will be lost. The more computer memory, the better the computer will run and the better it will handle programs and software. RAM is now generally measured in Mhz, and most commonly seen in the types of SDRAM, DDRRAM, DDR2RAM.

Hard Drive

A Hard Disk Drive is another very crucial component to a computer. The hard drive is a permanent storage device. It is possible for a computer to function without a Hard Disk Drive, but it would have no operating system and would be of very little use. All the information on your computer including the operating system (eg. windows XP), programs and files will be stored on the Hard Drive. Hard Drives are measured in Gigabytes (one billion bytes).

CD/DVD Drives

CD/DVD Drives are another storage device in a computer. CD Drives are used to read CD's with information on them such as an operating system, programs or data files. Recently CD-RW and DVD-RW have been included in computers meaning that it is possible to write data to blank disks. CD Drives are measured by their read and write speeds.

Video Cards

A video card is another compulsory component in a computer. The information goes into the video card and then is transmitted to the monitor where the information is displayed. Some motherboards have the graphics card built in, but the majority need a seperate card that plugs into the motherboard. 

Sound Card

A sound card is another extra that can be added to your computer. A sound card translates signals into sounds that can be played back through speakers. Many motherboards have a sound card incorporated in the motherboard, but for those that don't it is possible to get one.

Monitors

Computer monitors are another compulsory unit of a computer system. It is possible for the computer to function correctly without a monitor but there would be very little point as you cannot see anything. The computer monitor connects to the graphics card and it displays a picture on the screen. Computer monitors come in two types: CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) which are block monitors and LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) which are very thin.

Network Card

A Computer Network Card or a LAN (Local Area Network) card is increasingly becoming more and more necessary in world of broadband internet and home networking. LAN ports are often incorporated on the motherboard and it is used for networking computers together or for connecting through a router to the World Wide Web.

Other Components

There are many other computer hardware components that can be placed onto the motherboard in the PCI-slots. These include, firewire cards, USB cards, TV tuners, and many other components that are specific to their personal needs.

 

Difference Between Computer Software and Hardware

Difference Between Computer Software and Hardware

While computer jargon can be hard to get to grips with, two terms that pop up extremely often in any computer discussion are the words "software" and "hardware".

But what is the difference between computer software and hardware?

These two terms refer to the most fundamental parts of computer systems. Both of them are vital for any computer to operate, and they are also dependent on one another, as you can see in this article about how computers work

Definition of Computer Hardware and Software

When we talk about computer hardware, we mean the actual components of your computer. Such things as the computer’s motherboard, its CPU, the video card, the keyboard and mouse, these are all "hardware".

The difference between computer software and hardware is that software refers to the coding and various programs that you have on your computer. These include your operating system (Windows etc), media players, Photoshop etc.

Purpose

Computer hardware is usually multi-purpose in that it is able to perform lots of different tasks. For instance, your computer monitor doesn't just display images on screen; it also shows videos, widgets and text. One difference between computer software and hardware is that software is normally only designed to perform one task.

Your media player for example, is only for accessing media like movies and songs. It cannot edit photos or browse the web. The only real exception to this is the operating system itself, which is a user-friendly interface designed to let you access all the other bits of software and files stored on your PC.

System Requirements

Computer software can only function on a computer if that computer meets the system requirements needed to run it properly. Such requirements include hard drive requirements, a minimum processor speed, RAM requirements and a supported operating system.

Occasionally a piece of software will have additional requirements, and these will normally be printed on the box when you purchase it, or else it will be displayed on the website you have downloaded it from.

Bit Rate 64 Bit vs 32 Bit

The transition in computers from operating systems of 32-bits to operating systems of 64-bits has become a recent issue with hardware and software. The difference between the two kinds of operating system are that 64-bit systems can access more RAM and are able to process much bigger data chunks than the old 32-bit systems.

In order to run software that is 64-bit, it is necessary to have a 64-bit CPU along with a motherboard that is compatible with the software. Because there are many computers that don'’t have the hardware necessary to run the 64-bit versions of software, many manufacturers release both 64-bit and 32-bit versions of their programs.

Development

Both computer software and computer hardware are being constantly developed, with superior components and programs being released all the time. The development of hardware is usually focused on creating faster and more compact components through the use of new technology.

Meanwhile, developers of software are constantly striving to keep pace with these new advancements in hardware by building smoother running, better looking and more comprehensive programs. The result of this is that computer users are constantly being required to update their hardware to be able to run the latest pieces of software.

Conclusion - Difference Between Computer Software and Hardware

I hope this article on explaining the difference between computer software and hardware has been useful for you. Obviously this website is dedicated to the hardware side of it and I encourage you to take advantage of the resources on this website.

The Computer Keyboard

So What is a Computer Keyboard and How does it work?

A computer keyboard is an input device that connects to your computer and sends signals between that and the computer.

Now nearly every computer user has a keyboard. I can nearly guarantee that you are using one right now.

Everyone knows what a computer keyboard is, but not everyone knows how to use a keyboard of how a keyboard works.

That is what this article, on learning the computer keyboard is about. Or looking to learn the history of the computer keyboard, then go no further then this in-depth article.

Computer Keyboard Layout

This article is written to explain the computer keyboard layout. Now most likely your keyboard is the QWERTY layout, because this layout is the most typical and popular and the majority of the world types on a QWERTY keyboard layout.

However this article will cover the other keyboard layouts, as well as explaining the different parts of keyboard, eg. the Function keys, the numerical keypad and more.

Types of Computer Keyboards

There are also a number of types of computer keyboards. There are laptop keyboards, normal keyboards, ergonomic keyboards, thumbsize keyboards, gaming keyboards, numeric keyboards and others. This article will attempt to cover each of these types and help explain what they are and their certain benefits.

Cleaning Computer Keyboards

It is also important to learn how to clean computer keyboards. This article will go through the process of cleaning a keyboard and explaining some do's and don'ts.

Conclusion

As you can see there is a lot to learn about the computer keyboard. I hope these articles on the keyboard will prove useful to your understanding of the keyboard and your understanding of the entire computer.